Limits of the Scientific Method

Masanobu Fukuoka (1913–2008) was born on the Japanese island of Shikoku, the eldest son of a rice farmer and local mayor. After studying plant diseases and working as a produce inspector, he returned to his village in 1938 to focus on natural farming. During World War II, he worked as a food production researcher for the Japanese government but avoided military service until the war’s final months.

After the war, he dedicated himself to farming and, in 1975, wrote The One-Straw Revolution, expressing his concerns about Japan’s modernization. Later, Fukuoka worked on projects to fight desertification and continued farming into his eighties. He also wrote The Natural Way of Farming and The Road Back to Nature. In 1988, he received the Magsaysay Award for Public Service.

Let us read an excerpt from Japanese natural farming practitioner and philosopher Masanobu Fukuoka’s celebrated book One Straw Revolution.

Before researchers become researchers they should become philosophers. They should consider what the human goal is, what it is that humanity should create. Doctors should first determine at the fundamental level what it is that human beings depend on for life.

In applying my theories to farming, I have been experimenting in growing my crops in various ways, always with the idea of developing a method close to nature. I have done this by whittling away unnecessary agricultural practices.

Modern scientific agriculture, on the other hand, has no such vision. Research wanders about aimlessly, each researcher seeing just one part of the infinite array of natural factors which affect harvest yields. Furthermore, these natural factors change from place to place and from year to year.

Even though it is the same quarter acre, the farmer must grow his crops differently each year in accordance with variations in weather, insect populations, the condition of the soil, and many other natural factors. Nature is everywhere in perpetual motion; conditions are never exactly the same in any two years.

Modern research divides nature into tiny pieces and conducts tests that conform neither with natural law nor with practical experiences. The results are arranged for the convenience of research, not according to the needs of the farmer. To think that these conclusions can be put to use with invariable success in the farmer’s field is a big mistake.

Recently Professor Tsuno of Ehime University wrote a lengthy book on the relationship of plant metabolism to rice harvests. This professor often comes to my field, digs down a few feet to check the soil. brings students along to measure the angle of sunlight and shade and whatnot, and takes plant specimens back to the lab for analysis. I often ask him, “When you go back, are you going to try non-cultivation direct seeding?” He laughingly answers, “No, I’ll leave the applications to you. I’m going to stick to research.”

So that is how it is. You study the function of the plant’s metabolism and its ability to absorb nutrients from the soil, write a book, and get a doctorate in agricultural science. But do not ask if your theory of assimilation is going to be relevant to the yield.

Even if you can explain how metabolism affects the productivity of the top leaf when the average temperature is eighty-four degrees (Fahrenheit), there are places where the temperature is not eighty-four degrees. And if the temperature is eighty-four degrees in Ehime this year, next year it may only be seventy-five degrees. To say that simply stepping up metabolism will increase starch formation and produce a large harvest is a mistake. The geography and topography of the land, the condition of the soil, its structure, texture, and drainage, exposure to sunlight, insect relationships, the variety of seed used, the meth-od of cultivation—truly an infinite variety of factors-must all be considered. A scientific testing method which takes all relevant factors into account is an impossibility.

You hear a lot of talk these days about the benefits of the “Good Rice Movement” and the “Green Revolution.” Because these methods depend on weak, “improved” seed varieties, it becomes necessary for the farmer to apply chemicals and insecticides eight or ten times during the growing season. In a short time the soil is burned clean of microorganisms and organic matter. The life of the soil is destroyed and crops come to be dependent on nutrients added from the outside in the form of chemical fertilizer.

It appears that things go better when the farmer applies “scientific” techniques, but this does not mean that science must come to the rescue because the natural fertility is inherently insufficient. It means that rescue is necessary because the natural fertility has been destroyed.

By spreading straw, growing clover, and returning to the soil all organic residues, the earth comes to possess all the nutrients needed to grow rice and winter grain in the same field year after year. By natural farming, fields that have already been damaged by cultivation or the use of agricultural chemicals can be effectively rehabilitated.

Here is the text translated into Bengali:

বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতির সীমাবদ্ধতা

মাসানোবু ফুকোকা (১৯১৩–২০০৮) জাপানের শিকোকু দ্বীপে জন্মগ্রহণ করেন। তিনি ছিলেন একজন ধান চাষি এবং স্থানীয় মেয়রের জ্যেষ্ঠ পুত্র। উদ্ভিদের রোগ নিয়ে পড়াশোনা এবং পণ্য পরিদর্শক হিসেবে কাজ করার পর, ১৯৩৮ সালে তিনি তার গ্রামে ফিরে আসেন এবং প্রাকৃতিক চাষের দিকে মনোযোগ দেন। দ্বিতীয় বিশ্বযুদ্ধের সময় তিনি জাপানি সরকারের জন্য খাদ্য উৎপাদন গবেষক হিসেবে কাজ করেন, কিন্তু যুদ্ধের শেষ মাস পর্যন্ত সামরিক চাকরি এড়িয়ে চলেন।

যুদ্ধের পর, তিনি নিজেকে সম্পূর্ণরূপে কৃষিকাজে নিয়োজিত করেন এবং ১৯৭৫ সালে ‘এক খড়ের বিপ্লব‘ (The One-Straw Revolution) বইটি লেখেন, যেখানে তিনি জাপানের আধুনিকীকরণ নিয়ে তার উদ্বেগ প্রকাশ করেন। পরবর্তীতে, ফুকোকা মরুকরণ রোধের প্রকল্পে কাজ করেন এবং তার আশি বছর বয়স পর্যন্ত চাষাবাদ চালিয়ে যান। তিনি ‘প্রাকৃতিক চাষের পথ‘ (The Natural Way of Farming) এবং ‘প্রকৃতির কাছে ফিরে আসা‘ (The Road Back to Nature)–ও লেখেন। ১৯৮৮ সালে তিনি জনসেবার জন্য ম্যাগসেসে পুরস্কার লাভ করেন।

আসুন, জাপানি প্রাকৃতিক চাষ অনুশীলনকারী এবং দার্শনিক মাসানোবু ফুকোকার বিখ্যাত বই ‘এক খড়ের বিপ্লব‘ (One Straw Revolution) থেকে একটি অংশ পড়ি।

গবেষকদের গবেষক হওয়ার আগে দার্শনিক হওয়া উচিত। তাদের বিবেচনা করা উচিত মানুষের লক্ষ্য কী, মানবজাতির কী সৃষ্টি করা উচিত। ডাক্তারদের প্রথমে মৌলিক স্তরে নির্ধারণ করা উচিত যে মানুষের জীবন কিসের উপর নির্ভর করে।

আমার তত্ত্বগুলো কৃষিক্ষেত্রে প্রয়োগ করার জন্য, আমি বিভিন্ন উপায়ে আমার ফসল ফলানোর পরীক্ষা করেছি, সবসময় প্রকৃতির কাছাকাছি একটি পদ্ধতি বিকাশের ধারণায়। আমি অপ্রয়োজনীয় কৃষি পদ্ধতিগুলো ছাঁটাই করে এটি করেছি।

অন্যদিকে, আধুনিক বৈজ্ঞানিক কৃষির এমন কোনো দৃষ্টিভঙ্গি নেই। গবেষণা লক্ষ্যহীনভাবে ঘুরে বেড়ায়, প্রতিটি গবেষক কেবল প্রাকৃতিক কারণগুলোর অসীম বিন্যাসের একটি অংশ দেখেন যা ফসলের ফলনকে প্রভাবিত করে।

উপরন্তু, এই প্রাকৃতিক কারণগুলো স্থান থেকে স্থান এবং বছর থেকে বছরে পরিবর্তিত হয়।

এমনকি যদি এটি একই কোয়ার্টার একর জমিও হয়, তবে কৃষককে প্রতি বছর আবহাওয়া, পোকামাকড়ের সংখ্যা, মাটির অবস্থা এবং অন্যান্য অনেক প্রাকৃতিক কারণের ভিন্নতা অনুযায়ী তার ফসল ভিন্নভাবে ফলাতে হয়। প্রকৃতি সর্বত্র নিরন্তর গতিতে থাকে; কোনো দুটি বছরে পরিস্থিতি ঠিক একই থাকে না।

আধুনিক গবেষণা প্রকৃতিকে ক্ষুদ্র ক্ষুদ্র অংশে বিভক্ত করে এবং এমন পরীক্ষা পরিচালনা করে যা প্রাকৃতিক নিয়ম বা ব্যবহারিক অভিজ্ঞতার সাথে সঙ্গতিপূর্ণ নয়। ফলাফলগুলো গবেষণার সুবিধার জন্য সাজানো হয়, কৃষকের প্রয়োজনের জন্য নয়। এই সিদ্ধান্তে পৌঁছানো যে এই সিদ্ধান্তগুলো কৃষকের ক্ষেতে অপরিবর্তনীয় সাফল্যের সাথে ব্যবহার করা যেতে পারে, এটি একটি বড় ভুল।

সম্প্রতি এহিমে বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ের অধ্যাপক সুনো ধানের ফলনের সাথে উদ্ভিদের বিপাকীয় প্রক্রিয়ার সম্পর্ক নিয়ে একটি দীর্ঘ বই লিখেছেন। এই অধ্যাপক প্রায়ই আমার ক্ষেতে আসেন, মাটি পরীক্ষা করার জন্য কয়েক ফুট নিচে খনন করেন, সূর্যের আলো এবং ছায়ার কোণ পরিমাপ করার জন্য শিক্ষার্থীদের সাথে নিয়ে আসেন এবং বিশ্লেষণের জন্য গাছের নমুনা ল্যাবে নিয়ে যান। আমি প্রায়ই তাকে জিজ্ঞাসা করি, “যখন আপনি ফিরে যাবেন, তখন কি আপনি অ–চাষ direct seeding চেষ্টা করবেন?” তিনি হেসে উত্তর দেন, “না, আমি প্রয়োগগুলো আপনার জন্য রেখে দেব। আমি গবেষণার সাথেই লেগে থাকব।“

সুতরাং এটি এভাবেই হয়। আপনি উদ্ভিদের বিপাকীয় প্রক্রিয়া এবং মাটি থেকে পুষ্টি শোষণের ক্ষমতা নিয়ে অধ্যয়ন করেন, একটি বই লেখেন এবং কৃষি বিজ্ঞানে ডক্টরেট পান। কিন্তু আপনার আত্মীকরণ তত্ত্ব ফলনের সাথে প্রাসঙ্গিক হবে কি না, তা জিজ্ঞাসা করবেন না।

এমনকি যদি আপনি ব্যাখ্যা করতে পারেন যে গড় তাপমাত্রা ৮৪ ডিগ্রি ফারেনহাইট হলে উপরের পাতার উৎপাদনে বিপাক কীভাবে প্রভাব ফেলে, এমন অনেক জায়গা আছে যেখানে তাপমাত্রা ৮৪ ডিগ্রি নয়। এবং যদি এই বছর এহিমে তাপমাত্রা ৮৪ ডিগ্রি হয়, পরের বছর তা মাত্র ৭৫ ডিগ্রি হতে পারে। এই কথা বলা যে কেবল বিপাক বাড়ালে স্টার্চ গঠন বাড়বে এবং একটি বড় ফলন হবে, এটি একটি ভুল। ভূমির ভূগোল এবং টপোগ্রাফি, মাটির অবস্থা, এর গঠন, বুনন এবং নিষ্কাশন, সূর্যালোকের সংস্পর্শ, পোকামাকড়ের সম্পর্ক, ব্যবহৃত বীজের জাত, চাষের পদ্ধতি—সত্যিই একটি অসীম সংখ্যক কারণ—সবগুলোই বিবেচনা করতে হবে। একটি বৈজ্ঞানিক পরীক্ষা পদ্ধতি যা সমস্ত প্রাসঙ্গিক কারণকে বিবেচনায় নেয়, তা অসম্ভব।

আজকাল “গুড রাইস মুভমেন্ট” এবং “সবুজ বিপ্লব” এর সুবিধা সম্পর্কে অনেক কথা শোনা যায়। যেহেতু এই পদ্ধতিগুলো দুর্বল, “উন্নত” বীজের জাতের উপর নির্ভরশীল, তাই কৃষকের জন্য ফসল বাড়ানোর মৌসুমে আট বা দশবার রাসায়নিক এবং কীটনাশক প্রয়োগ করা প্রয়োজন হয়ে পড়ে। অল্প সময়ের মধ্যে মাটি অণুজীব এবং জৈব পদার্থ থেকে পুড়ে পরিষ্কার হয়ে যায়। মাটির জীবন ধ্বংস হয়ে যায় এবং ফসল বাইরে থেকে রাসায়নিক সারের আকারে যোগ করা পুষ্টির উপর নির্ভরশীল হয়ে পড়ে।

দেখে মনে হয় যে কৃষক যখন “বৈজ্ঞানিক” কৌশল প্রয়োগ করে, তখন সবকিছু ভালো চলে, কিন্তু এর মানে এই নয় যে প্রাকৃতিক উর্বরতা জন্মগতভাবে অপর্যাপ্ত বলে বিজ্ঞানকে উদ্ধারের জন্য আসতে হবে। এর অর্থ হলো, প্রাকৃতিক উর্বরতা ধ্বংস হয়ে গেছে বলেই উদ্ধারের প্রয়োজন।

খড় ছড়িয়ে, ক্লোভার জন্মিয়ে এবং সমস্ত জৈব অবশেষ মাটিতে ফিরিয়ে দিয়ে, জমি প্রতি বছর একই জমিতে ধান এবং শীতকালীন শস্য ফলানোর জন্য প্রয়োজনীয় সমস্ত পুষ্টি ধারণ করে। প্রাকৃতিক চাষের মাধ্যমে, যে জমিগুলো ইতিমধ্যে চাষাবাদ বা কৃষি রাসায়নিক ব্যবহারের কারণে ক্ষতিগ্রস্ত হয়েছে, তা কার্যকরভাবে পুনর্বাসন করা যায়।

Here’s a Vocabulary Table based on the passage “Limits of the Scientific Method” by Masanobu Fukuoka.

MCQs from Limits of the Scientific Method

1. Masanobu Fukuoka was born in:
   (i) Okinawa (ii) Hokkaido (iii) Shikoku (iv) Kyoto
2. Fukuoka’s first major book is:
   (i) The Road Back to Nature (ii) The Natural Way of Farming (iii) The One-Straw Revolution (iv) The Science of Agriculture
3. The term “natural farming” means:
   (i) avoiding unnecessary practices (ii) heavy use of chemicals (iii) hybrid seed use (iv) laboratory-based farming
4. During World War II, Fukuoka worked as:
   (i) a soldier (ii) a food production researcher (iii) a rice trader (iv) a mayor
5. In 1988, Fukuoka received the:
   (i) Nobel Prize (ii) Magsaysay Award (iii) Pulitzer Prize (iv) Gandhi Peace Award
6. According to Fukuoka, before becoming researchers, people should first become:
   (i) politicians (ii) farmers (iii) philosophers (iv) doctors
7. The phrase “whittling away unnecessary agricultural practices” means:
   (i) adding modern machines (ii) removing useless methods (iii) increasing chemicals (iv) ignoring nature
8. Modern scientific agriculture, according to Fukuoka, has:
   (i) vision (ii) no vision (iii) complete success (iv) stable yields
9. Nature is described as being in:
   (i) perpetual rest (ii) perpetual motion (iii) constant control (iv) strict order
10. Research results are arranged for the convenience of:
    (i) nature (ii) farmers (iii) research (iv) soil fertility
11. The book written by Professor Tsuno was about:
    (i) plant metabolism and rice harvests (ii) natural farming (iii) desertification (iv) the Green Revolution
12. Professor Tsuno collected plant specimens for:
    (i) sale (ii) analysis (iii) seed storage (iv) cooking
13. When asked about non-cultivation direct seeding, Professor Tsuno replied with:
    (i) agreement (ii) laughter (iii) criticism (iv) silence
14. A doctorate in agricultural science can be achieved by:
    (i) practical farming (ii) writing a book (iii) seed preservation (iv) desert projects
15. According to Fukuoka, it is a mistake to assume that:
    (i) theories are relevant everywhere (ii) farming depends on soil (iii) sunlight helps growth (iv) seeds differ by variety
16. A scientific testing method which includes all factors is called:
    (i) possible (ii) useful (iii) impossible (iv) simple
17. The “Good Rice Movement” depended on:
    (i) traditional seeds (ii) weak improved seeds (iii) natural compost (iv) wild varieties
18. Because of weak seed varieties, farmers had to:
    (i) irrigate less (ii) apply chemicals 8–10 times (iii) reduce cultivation (iv) avoid fertilizer
19. Excessive use of chemicals destroyed:
    (i) insects only (ii) microorganisms and organic matter (iii) seed varieties (iv) sunlight
20. According to Fukuoka, rescue was needed not because fertility was insufficient but because:
    (i) it was destroyed (ii) it was new (iii) farmers were lazy (iv) rain was scarce
21. Fukuoka believed that nature’s conditions are:
    (i) the same each year (ii) never exactly the same (iii) predictable (iv) fixed
22. The word “vision” in the passage refers to:
    (i) dream (ii) eyesight (iii) purpose (iv) illusion
23. Scientific agriculture divides nature into:
    (i) large wholes (ii) tiny pieces (iii) equal parts (iv) simple laws
24. Fukuoka’s methods were based on being:
    (i) close to nature (ii) chemical-based (iii) seed replacement (iv) mechanical
25. Researchers, according to Fukuoka, wander:
    (i) with a fixed plan (ii) aimlessly (iii) scientifically (iv) carefully
26. Research results are not arranged according to:
    (i) the convenience of research (ii) natural law (iii) laboratories (iv) books
27. Farmers must change their cultivation each year due to:
    (i) price of seeds (ii) natural variations (iii) market demand (iv) government orders
28. Soil fertility can be restored by:
    (i) straw spreading and clover growing (ii) pesticides (iii) insecticides (iv) hybrid seeds
29. The word “rehabilitated” in the passage means:
    (i) destroyed (ii) restored (iii) weakened (iv) removed
30. The Green Revolution depended mainly on:
    (i) chemical fertilizers (ii) natural methods (iii) crop rotation (iv) traditional farming
31. Fields damaged by chemicals can be:
    (i) abandoned (ii) rehabilitated (iii) destroyed forever (iv) left fallow
32. The function of plant metabolism was studied by:
    (i) Fukuoka (ii) Professor Tsuno (iii) government officers (iv) desert farmers
33. The phrase “life of the soil” means:
    (i) stones (ii) microorganisms and organic matter (iii) seeds only (iv) rainfall
34. Fukuoka’s farming system was also called:
    (i) desert farming (ii) natural farming (iii) hybrid farming (iv) chemical farming
35. Fukuoka criticized researchers for:
    (i) helping farmers (ii) ignoring practical needs (iii) working in fields (iv) planting trees
36. The word “assimilation” in the passage refers to:
    (i) seed storage (ii) absorption of nutrients (iii) grain harvest (iv) fertilizer making
37. If the temperature changes, then metabolism:
    (i) works the same (ii) may not match yields (iii) always increases (iv) never decreases
38. The “top leaf” mentioned in the passage relates to:
    (i) plant productivity (ii) seed storage (iii) soil fertility (iv) fertilizer absorption
39. According to Fukuoka, agricultural science often brings:
    (i) definite answers (ii) irrelevant results (iii) permanent fertility (iv) easy solutions
40. A major concern of Fukuoka was:
    (i) modernization of Japan (ii) mechanization of farming (iii) food storage (iv) city development
41. The word “perpetual” means:
    (i) constant (ii) temporary (iii) broken (iv) seasonal
42. Fukuoka’s approach to farming was mainly:
    (i) experimental and natural (ii) chemical-based (iii) machine-driven (iv) market-focused
43. Modern agriculture is said to destroy:
    (i) the harvest (ii) the natural fertility of soil (iii) the farmer’s labor (iv) rainfall patterns
44. A farmer must adapt his methods each year according to:
    (i) seed price (ii) market rate (iii) natural factors (iv) fertilizer supply
45. Fukuoka’s experiments aimed at developing:
    (i) a costly method (ii) a method close to nature (iii) industrial farming (iv) laboratory farming
46. Scientific research often neglects:
    (i) nature (ii) soil fertility (iii) farmers’ needs (iv) plant growth
47. Fukuoka worked as a food production researcher for:
    (i) the Japanese government (ii) the US army (iii) the UN (iv) a private farm
48. The Magsaysay Award is given for:
    (i) Public Service (ii) Science (iii) Arts (iv) Farming
49. The book The Natural Way of Farming was written by:
    (i) Professor Tsuno (ii) Masanobu Fukuoka (iii) Lord Ashley (iv) Charles Kingsley
50. Fukuoka opposed the heavy use of:
    (i) compost (ii) pesticides and fertilizers (iii) straw (iv) clover
51. The word “metabolism” refers to:
    (i) seed germination (ii) life processes of plants (iii) water irrigation (iv) grain harvesting
52. The “angle of sunlight” was measured by:
    (i) Fukuoka (ii) students of Professor Tsuno (iii) farmers (iv) inspectors
53. The word “wanders” means:
    (i) roams without direction (ii) studies carefully (iii) grows naturally (iv) rests quietly
54. Fukuoka said scientific testing of all factors is:
    (i) possible (ii) impossible (iii) certain (iv) permanent
55. By applying chemicals 8–10 times, the soil becomes:
    (i) enriched (ii) fertile (iii) burned clean (iv) strengthened
56. Fukuoka’s philosophy encouraged:
    (i) ignoring nature (ii) working with nature (iii) hybrid seed adoption (iv) high-tech farming
57. Research conclusions are often:
    (i) practical (ii) irrelevant to farmers (iii) directly useful (iv) successful everywhere
58. The “One-Straw Revolution” was published in:
    (i) 1942 (ii) 1975 (iii) 1988 (iv) 2005
59. The phrase “stick to research” means:
    (i) continue farming (ii) remain in experiments (iii) avoid studies (iv) give up
60. The term “Green Revolution” is connected with:
    (i) traditional farming (ii) improved seeds and chemicals (iii) natural farming (iv) crop rotation
61. Fukuoka believed researchers should first ask:
    (i) what humanity should create (ii) how to increase profit (iii) what machines to use (iv) how to grow hybrid seeds
62. Natural fertility is destroyed mainly by:
    (i) composting (ii) chemicals (iii) straw mulching (iv) rainfall
63. The soil structure can be described as including:
    (i) texture and drainage (ii) seeds only (iii) fertilizers (iv) rainfall
64. The life of the soil refers to:
    (i) chemical fertilizers (ii) microorganisms and organic matter (iii) tractors (iv) improved seeds
65. Fukuoka considered agriculture based on chemicals as:
    (i) healthy (ii) destructive (iii) natural (iv) easy
66. Farmers can grow rice and winter grain year after year by:
    (i) straw spreading and clover (ii) insecticides (iii) irrigation pumps (iv) improved seed
67. The phrase “burned clean” means:
    (i) destroyed (ii) enriched (iii) watered (iv) harvested
68. The condition of the soil includes:
    (i) texture (ii) structure (iii) drainage (iv) all of these
69. Fukuoka’s experiments always had the idea of:
    (i) more profit (ii) being closer to nature (iii) high yield only (iv) ignoring soil
70. Research conclusions fail because:
    (i) they change yearly (ii) they ignore farmers’ needs (iii) they are only theoretical (iv) all of these
71. Desertification projects were also worked on by:
    (i) Professor Tsuno (ii) Masanobu Fukuoka (iii) Lord Ashley (iv) Gandhi
72. Fukuoka returned to his village in:
    (i) 1913 (ii) 1938 (iii) 1975 (iv) 1988
73. Fukuoka avoided military service until:
    (i) the start of war (ii) the final months of war (iii) the middle of war (iv) after 1945
74. Research divides nature for:
    (i) farmers’ needs (ii) research convenience (iii) soil health (iv) seed saving
75. Scientific agriculture appears better because:
    (i) natural fertility is sufficient (ii) natural fertility was destroyed (iii) machines are available (iv) farmers are rich
76. Farmers become dependent on:
    (i) external fertilizers (ii) sunlight only (iii) rainfall (iv) clover
77. Fukuoka’s philosophy was partly:
    (i) medical (ii) philosophical (iii) chemical (iv) mechanical
78. Organic residues should be:
    (i) burned (ii) returned to the soil (iii) thrown away (iv) sold
79. According to Fukuoka, the ultimate human goal should be:
    (i) production (ii) creation aligned with life (iii) scientific progress (iv) economic growth
80. Fukuoka criticized modern agriculture for:
    (i) being too cheap (ii) lacking vision (iii) using compost (iv) promoting natural growth
81. The word “excerpt” means:
    (i) whole book (ii) summary (iii) selected passage (iv) translation
82. Doctors, according to Fukuoka, should first determine:
    (i) medical fees (ii) human dependence for life (iii) hospital size (iv) research costs
83. A farmer needs to adapt cultivation due to changes in:
    (i) insect populations (ii) weather (iii) soil conditions (iv) all of these
84. Experiments in agriculture should be:
    (i) with machines (ii) with chemicals (iii) close to nature (iv) market-driven
85. Professor Tsuno’s students measured:
    (i) seed size (ii) angle of sunlight and shade (iii) soil color (iv) crop prices
86. The phrase “to stick to research” implies:
    (i) avoid practical farming (ii) mix both farming and research (iii) reject science (iv) farm naturally
87. The word “factors” in the passage refers to:
    (i) things affecting harvests (ii) research books (iii) fertilizers (iv) machines
88. To Fukuoka, research was seen as:
    (i) helpful always (ii) disconnected from practice (iii) solution-oriented (iv) natural
89. The term “revolution” in One-Straw Revolution means:
    (i) change in farming method (ii) war (iii) political movement (iv) seed trade
90. The phrase “natural way” refers to:
    (i) farming without unnecessary practices (ii) using modern labs (iii) importing seeds (iv) chemical fertilizers
91. Fukuoka believed research conclusions:
    (i) could not be applied invariable everywhere (ii) always worked (iii) were correct for all places (iv) solved every problem
92. Fertility can be restored by:
    (i) spreading straw (ii) growing clover (iii) recycling organic matter (iv) all of these
93. Fukuoka criticized the Green Revolution because:
    (i) it depended on weak seeds and chemicals (ii) it ignored farmers (iii) it reduced yields (iv) it needed tractors
94. Fukuoka’s writings are best described as:
    (i) practical philosophy (ii) political (iii) medical (iv) fictional
95. According to Fukuoka, farming conditions:
    (i) never remain the same (ii) are always constant (iii) are simple to control (iv) don’t affect yield
96. Scientific agriculture conclusions are arranged for:
    (i) convenience of research (ii) convenience of farmers (iii) nature’s balance (iv) soil fertility
97. To say that stepping up metabolism always increases yields is:
    (i) true (ii) false (iii) correct in all cases (iv) universally valid
98. Improved seed varieties are described as:
    (i) weak (ii) strong (iii) natural (iv) resistant
99. Fukuoka worked on desertification projects after:
    (i) the war (ii) 1975 (iii) 1988 (iv) 1938
100. The main idea of Fukuoka’s passage is:
     (i) limits of modern scientific agriculture (ii) benefits of chemical farming (iii) progress of seed improvement (iv) future of machines

Here are the answers in a single paragraph, numbered for clarity:

1. (iii) Shikoku 2. (iii) The One-Straw Revolution 3. (i) avoiding unnecessary practices 4. (ii) a food production researcher 5. (ii) Magsaysay Award 6. (iii) philosophers 7. (ii) removing useless methods 8. (ii) no vision 9. (ii) perpetual motion 10. (iii) research 11. (i) plant metabolism and rice harvests 12. (ii) analysis 13. (ii) laughter 14. (ii) writing a book 15. (i) theories are relevant everywhere 16. (iii) impossible 17. (ii) weak improved seeds 18. (ii) apply chemicals 8–10 times 19. (ii) microorganisms and organic matter 20. (i) it was destroyed 21. (ii) never exactly the same 22. (iii) purpose 23. (ii) tiny pieces 24. (i) close to nature 25. (ii) aimlessly 26. (ii) natural law 27. (ii) natural variations 28. (i) straw spreading and clover growing 29. (ii) restored 30. (i) chemical fertilizers 31. (ii) rehabilitated 32. (ii) Professor Tsuno 33. (ii) microorganisms and organic matter 34. (ii) natural farming 35. (ii) ignoring practical needs 36. (ii) absorption of nutrients 37. (ii) may not match yields 38. (i) plant productivity 39. (ii) irrelevant results 40. (i) modernization of Japan 41. (i) constant 42. (i) experimental and natural 43. (ii) the natural fertility of soil 44. (iii) natural factors 45. (ii) a method close to nature 46. (iii) farmers’ needs 47. (i) the Japanese government 48. (i) Public Service 49. (ii) Masanobu Fukuoka 50. (ii) pesticides and fertilizers 51. (ii) life processes of plants 52. (ii) students of Professor Tsuno 53. (i) roams without direction 54. (ii) impossible 55. (iii) burned clean 56. (ii) working with nature 57. (ii) irrelevant to farmers 58. (ii) 1975 59. (ii) remain in experiments 60. (ii) improved seeds and chemicals 61. (i) what humanity should create 62. (ii) chemicals 63. (i) texture and drainage 64. (ii) microorganisms and organic matter 65. (ii) destructive 66. (i) straw spreading and clover 67. (i) destroyed 68. (iv) all of these 69. (ii) being closer to nature 70. (iv) all of these 71. (ii) Masanobu Fukuoka 72. (ii) 1938 73. (ii) the final months of war 74. (ii) research convenience 75. (ii) natural fertility was destroyed 76. (i) external fertilizers 77. (ii) philosophical 78. (ii) returned to the soil 79. (ii) creation aligned with life 80. (ii) lacking vision 81. (iii) selected passage 82. (ii) human dependence for life 83. (iv) all of these 84. (iii) close to nature 85. (ii) angle of sunlight and shade 86. (i) avoid practical farming 87. (i) things affecting harvests 88. (ii) disconnected from practice 89. (i) change in farming method 90. (i) farming without unnecessary practices 91. (i) could not be applied invariable everywhere 92. (iv) all of these 93. (i) it depended on weak seeds and chemicals 94. (i) practical philosophy 95. (i) never remain the same 96. (i) convenience of research 97. (ii) false 98. (i) weak 99. (ii) 1975 100. (i) limits of modern scientific agriculture.

Critical WH Questions

1. Why did Fukuoka reject the overuse of chemicals in farming?
2. What does Fukuoka mean by the “limits of the scientific method”?
3. How did Fukuoka’s personal experiences influence his views on agriculture?
4. Why does Fukuoka criticize researchers for dividing nature into fragments?
5. What does Fukuoka suggest about the relationship between humans and nature?
6. How does Fukuoka describe “natural farming”?
7. Why does he argue that scientific agriculture lacks “vision”?
8. What is the significance of the phrase “One-Straw Revolution”?
9. How does Fukuoka’s philosophy challenge the Green Revolution?
10. Why does Fukuoka emphasize restoring fertility rather than creating it?
11. What role did World War II play in shaping his ideas?
12. Why did Fukuoka believe researchers should first become farmers?
13. What does he mean by “whittling away unnecessary agricultural practices”?
14. How does nature’s variability affect farming methods?
15. Why does he call research conclusions “irrelevant” to farmers?
16. What warning does he give about the destruction of microorganisms?
17. How does Fukuoka view the relationship between soil and fertility?
18. Why does he consider direct seeding without cultivation important?
19. What philosophical foundations underlie his farming methods?
20. How does he criticize the idea that theories apply everywhere?
21. Why does he oppose the dependence on external fertilizers?
22. How does he describe the life of the soil?
23. What dangers does he associate with improved seed varieties?
24. Why does he believe modern agriculture burns soil “clean”?
25. How does Fukuoka contrast natural and scientific farming?
26. Why does he stress straw spreading and clover growing?
27. What does he suggest about the unpredictability of natural conditions?
28. How does his work reflect a balance between science and philosophy?
29. Why does he think agricultural research ignores farmers’ real needs?
30. What evidence does he provide for soil rehabilitation?
31. Why does he emphasize simplicity in farming practices?
32. How does he explain the connection between plant metabolism and yields?
33. Why does he insist that farming is not only a technical process?
34. How does he criticize Professor Tsuno’s methods of research?
35. Why does he believe humanity must rethink its goals?
36. What role does sunlight play in his argument?
37. How does he interpret the phrase “perpetual motion of nature”?
38. Why does he consider over-research harmful?
39. How does his philosophy relate to sustainability?
40. Why does he think research conclusions fail in practice?
41. What contradictions does he find in scientific agriculture?
42. Why does he describe modern farming as destructive?
43. How does he explain the dependency created by chemicals?
44. What lessons can be learned from the Good Rice Movement?
45. Why does he reject the idea of permanent solutions in farming?
46. How does he challenge the Green Revolution’s promises?
47. What is his central critique of seed improvement?
48. Why does he stress the importance of traditional practices?
49. How does he define the concept of vision in agriculture?
50. Why does he argue against universal scientific methods?
51. How does he use philosophy to strengthen his arguments?
52. Why does he emphasize aligning farming with natural cycles?
53. What does he say about the limits of human knowledge?
54. Why does he oppose seeing agriculture only through economics?
55. How does he link farming to a larger human purpose?
56. Why does he stress humility before nature?
57. How does his farming method embody ecological balance?
58. Why does he reject laboratory-based agriculture?
59. What insights does he give on desertification projects?
60. Why does he stress restoring soil life instead of chemicals?
61. How does he describe the relationship between soil and plants?
62. Why does he connect farming with philosophy rather than science?
63. What critique does he make about the idea of progress?
64. How does his work contrast with Western agricultural science?
65. Why does he prefer observation to experimentation?
66. How does he explain the failure of agricultural theories?
67. Why does he argue farming cannot be universalized?
68. What role does simplicity play in his natural method?
69. How does he interpret the destruction caused by modern methods?
70. Why does he compare scientists to wanderers?
71. How does his farming philosophy reflect Japanese traditions?
72. Why does he stress creation aligned with life as humanity’s goal?
73. How does he define the difference between knowledge and wisdom?
74. Why does he reject the notion of endless yield increase?
75. How does his philosophy apply to modern environmental issues?
76. Why does he criticize the isolation of variables in research?
77. How does he compare farmers’ wisdom with researchers’ methods?
78. Why does he emphasize practical farming experience?
79. What does he see as the moral dimension of agriculture?
80. How does he explain the failure of improved seed varieties?
81. Why does he connect fertility with organic matter?
82. How does he critique the philosophy of control over nature?
83. Why does he warn against excessive reliance on machines?
84. How does his method combine science and spirituality?
85. Why does he insist that farming is part of human culture?
86. What does he argue about the meaning of revolution in farming?
87. How does he view humanity’s separation from nature?
88. Why does he think farming must be adapted each year?
89. How does he describe the “irrelevance” of research results?
90. Why does he see chemicals as a trap for farmers?
91. How does he relate soil fertility to sustainability?
92. Why does he stress balance rather than productivity?
93. What critique does he make of industrial agriculture?
94. How does his work show the failure of short-term solutions?
95. Why does he value traditional seed varieties?
96. How does he link agriculture with human ethics?
97. Why does he describe science as disconnected from practice?
98. How does his philosophy address climate variability?
99. Why does he stress humility in research conclusions?
100. How does his overall philosophy redefine the purpose of farming?

Answers:

1. Fukuoka rejected chemicals because they destroyed soil fertility and natural balance. He believed they made farmers dependent and weakened ecosystems.
2. By “limits of the scientific method,” Fukuoka meant science cannot fully capture nature’s complexity. He argued that reducing nature to fragments misses the whole picture.
3. His early work as a food production researcher during World War II showed him the flaws of scientific agriculture. Returning to his village, he tested natural methods that shaped his philosophy.
4. He criticized researchers for dividing nature because it separated interconnected systems. This fragmentation, he argued, led to incomplete and misleading conclusions.
5. Fukuoka suggested humans should work with nature rather than control it. He saw harmony with natural cycles as essential for survival.
6. Natural farming, for Fukuoka, meant avoiding unnecessary practices. It relied on straw spreading, clover, and minimal intervention.
7. He said scientific agriculture lacked vision because it focused only on short-term yields. It ignored long-term balance and human purpose.
8. “One-Straw Revolution” symbolized profound change through simplicity. A single straw could restore fertility and represent harmony with nature.
9. His philosophy challenged the Green Revolution because it relied on weak seeds and chemicals. He saw it as destructive rather than progressive.
10. Fukuoka believed fertility existed naturally but had been destroyed. He emphasized restoring what was lost rather than artificially creating it.
11. World War II exposed him to the industrial approach to food production. This experience made him question modern agricultural methods.
12. He believed researchers should first become farmers to understand real needs. Without this, scientific theories would remain detached.
13. “Whittling away unnecessary practices” meant removing harmful or wasteful farming techniques. It encouraged simplicity and alignment with natural processes.
14. He argued natural variability required constant adaptation. No two years in farming were ever the same.
15. He found research conclusions irrelevant because they ignored practical farming conditions. Theories that worked in one place often failed elsewhere.
16. Destroying microorganisms weakened the soil’s life. He warned this would reduce fertility and harm long-term yields.
17. Fukuoka described soil as a living system. Fertility depended on its microorganisms and organic matter.
18. Direct seeding without cultivation saved labor and preserved soil structure. It kept farming close to natural processes.
19. His methods were grounded in philosophical simplicity. He combined practical farming with reflections on human life.
20. He believed theories could not be applied everywhere equally. Each environment required its own approach.
21. External fertilizers, he argued, made farmers dependent. They also degraded natural fertility over time.
22. The life of the soil meant its microorganisms and organic matter. This living system sustained crops naturally.
23. Improved seed varieties were often weak. They required heavy chemical support, which damaged the land.
24. By “burned clean,” he meant chemicals destroyed soil life. The soil became empty of its natural fertility.
25. He contrasted natural farming with scientific agriculture by stressing harmony over control. His methods relied on nature’s own processes.
26. Straw spreading and clover growing restored fertility. These methods built soil health without chemicals.
27. Nature’s conditions, he said, were never identical. Farmers had to adjust their practices accordingly.
28. His work balanced science with philosophy. He saw agriculture as both practical and spiritual.
29. He argued agricultural research ignored farmers’ needs because it focused on theory. Farmers needed practical solutions, not laboratory results.
30. Fukuoka showed fields damaged by chemicals could be rehabilitated. Straw and organic matter restored their fertility.
31. Simplicity was central to his philosophy. He believed complicated systems led to failure.
32. He explained that plant metabolism varied with conditions. It could not always predict yields accurately.
33. Farming, he believed, was more than technique. It was a way of life connected with philosophy.
34. He criticized Professor Tsuno for focusing only on laboratory data. Such research, he said, lacked real farming insight.
35. Humanity, he said, must rethink its goals beyond production. True goals should align with life itself.
36. Sunlight influenced plant growth and metabolism. He showed its angle and intensity affected yields.
37. Nature, he said, was always in perpetual motion. Farming had to adapt to this rhythm.
38. Over-research, in his view, disconnected people from practice. It complicated problems instead of solving them.
39. His philosophy reflected sustainability before the term became popular. He emphasized balance, recycling, and soil restoration.
40. He argued research conclusions failed because they ignored reality. Farming was too complex to fit in rigid formulas.
41. Scientific agriculture claimed progress but caused contradictions. It destroyed fertility while pretending to increase yields.
42. He described modern farming as destructive to soil and farmers. It replaced natural fertility with chemicals.
43. Chemicals created dependency by requiring constant inputs. Farmers lost independence and natural resilience.
44. The Good Rice Movement showed the weakness of improved varieties. Farmers had to use chemicals excessively to sustain yields.
45. Permanent solutions, he argued, did not exist. Farming conditions changed every year.
46. He challenged the Green Revolution’s promises of abundance. Its methods harmed long-term soil health.
47. Seed improvement, he said, weakened crops. Traditional varieties were stronger and more resilient.
48. Traditional practices preserved fertility naturally. He saw them as wiser than modern interventions.
49. By “vision,” he meant purpose and direction. Farming without vision, he warned, led to destruction.
50. He opposed universal scientific methods. Farming required context-specific approaches.
51. Philosophy strengthened his argument by giving farming meaning. It connected practical work to human purpose.
52. Aligning farming with natural cycles ensured sustainability. It respected the earth’s own rhythm.
53. He said human knowledge had limits. Wisdom came from observing nature directly.
54. Agriculture, he warned, should not be seen only economically. It had cultural and moral dimensions.
55. Farming linked to a larger human purpose of harmony. It was not just about food production.
56. He urged humility before nature. Humans, he said, should follow rather than dominate.
57. His method balanced crops, soil, and ecology. It created a self-sustaining cycle.
58. He rejected laboratory-based farming as artificial. Real farming belonged in the fields, not experiments.
59. His desertification projects showed natural methods worked globally. Straw and organic matter restored barren land.
60. He stressed restoring soil life instead of adding chemicals. Fertility, he said, came from within.
61. Soil and plants formed a living relationship. Fertility depended on their interaction.
62. He linked farming more to philosophy than science. True farming required wisdom, not just technology.
63. Progress, he argued, often destroyed more than it created. He urged reevaluating its meaning.
64. His approach contrasted with Western science’s fragmentation. He emphasized wholeness and simplicity.
65. Observation revealed truth better than experiments. Watching nature taught more than measurements.
66. Theories failed because they ignored variability. Farming could not be standardized.
67. Agriculture, he insisted, could not be universalized. Each field required its own method.
68. Simplicity reduced waste and failure. It made farming sustainable and effective.
69. Modern methods destroyed soil and ecosystems. He argued they traded short-term yield for long-term loss.
70. He called scientists wanderers because they lacked vision. Their results were often directionless.
71. His philosophy reflected Japanese traditions of harmony with nature. It drew from culture as well as farming.
72. Humanity’s goal, he said, should be creation aligned with life. Production alone was meaningless.
73. Knowledge, for him, was technical, while wisdom was holistic. Farming needed wisdom to survive.
74. Yield increases, he warned, could not be endless. Nature had limits that must be respected.
75. His philosophy applied to climate and sustainability issues today. It encouraged balance over exploitation.
76. Research isolated variables, but farming integrated them. This disconnection caused failure.
77. Farmers’ wisdom came from lived experience. He valued it over academic methods.
78. Practical farming taught truths science missed. It grounded theory in reality.
79. Agriculture, he said, had a moral side. It reflected humanity’s relationship with nature.
80. Improved seeds failed because they relied on chemicals. Traditional varieties thrived naturally.
81. Organic matter, he stressed, was the base of fertility. Without it, soil became dead.
82. Control over nature, he argued, was an illusion. Humans had to work within natural limits.
83. He warned machines created dependency and imbalance. They disconnected farmers from the land.
84. His method joined science with spirituality. Farming was both practical and meaningful.
85. Farming, he said, was part of culture and heritage. It could not be reduced to industry.
86. “Revolution” in farming meant a return to nature. It was a change in mindset, not technology.
87. Humanity separated from nature, he believed, caused crisis. Farming could restore that connection.
88. Each year’s farming had to adapt to new conditions. Predictability was impossible.
89. Research, he said, often produced irrelevant results. Farmers could not apply them directly.
90. Chemicals trapped farmers into endless cycles of use. They became dependent and lost freedom.
91. Soil fertility sustained all agriculture. Destroying it meant destroying the future.
92. Balance, not productivity, was key to survival. Nature provided enough if respected.
93. Industrial agriculture, he argued, sacrificed ecology for profit. It ignored long-term sustainability.
94. Short-term solutions solved nothing. They left deeper problems behind.
95. Traditional seed varieties preserved resilience. They were better suited to natural farming.
96. He linked agriculture to ethics and responsibility. How humans farmed reflected their values.
97. Science, he said, was disconnected from real practice. It overlooked farmers’ lived realities.
98. His philosophy addressed climate by stressing adaptation. Nature’s variability required flexibility.
99. Research conclusions required humility. No result could explain everything.
100. His philosophy redefined farming as a partnership with nature. Its purpose was harmony, not domination.